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Monitoring The UN > The UN and Sustainable Development United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 1988: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate is created Climate Change was first recognized as a serious problem at the First World Climate Conference, which was held in Geneva in 1979. On this occasion, the World Climate Programme (WCP) was launched, under the auspices of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU). The mandate of the WCP was to co-ordinate global research on climate change. At a conference held in Villach, Austria in 1985, the threat posed by the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere was acknowledged. At the Toronto Conference on the Changing Atmosphere in 1988, calls were made for a 20% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions from 1988 levels by 2005. The second half of the 80’s were characterized by increased scientific evidence of climate change and numerous international conferences discussing these evidences and policy implications. In 1988, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was created by UNEP and the WMO. This Panel’s role was and continues to be the assessment of the state of knowledge on the climate system and climate change as well as the impacts on the economic, environmental and social systems and strategies to address these. Their First Assessment Report released in 1990 after extended peer review, confirmed the scientific evidence of climate change. The report, which was endorsed at the Second World Climate Conference in Geneva, had a powerful legitimizing effect for policy-makers as well as for the general public. It was at the Second World Climate Conference that states called for the negotiation of a climate change framework and identified the basic principles that would later be included in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). An International Negotiating Committee (INC) was created in early 1991, after the approval of the General Assembly, for the start of a treaty negotiation process. In conjunction to the negotiations of the UNFCCC, the world was also preparing for what would become an historical gathering of heads of States and other world leaders, the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The 150 participating countries involved in the UNFCCC negotiations were given a strict deadline to ensure that the Convention could be open for signature in Rio. In only 15 months the Convention was negotiated and was signed by 154 States in addition to the EU, in Rio. The UNFCCC was adopted in New York in May of the same year and came into force in March 1994, after its ratification by 50 signatory Parties. Looking back on the context under which the Convention was negotiated, in the early 90’s, there remained at that time significant disagreements on the evidence of climate change, let alone on its impacts and measures for its mitigation. Hence, negotiations occurred under a high degree of uncertainty on the facts about and impacts of climate change. The consolidation of an international framework was nevertheless a significant step because it forced leaders of the world to recognize climate change as a serious problem. What is Climate Change? Climate models predict that global temperature will rise by 1 to 3.5 degrees Celsius by the year 2100. This projected change is larger than any climate change experienced in the past 10,000 years. It is understood that climate change is a result of rising levels of “greenhouse gases” in the atmosphere, and that certain human activities contribute to this accumulation of greenhouse gases. This climate change is expected to have a serious impact on the global environment, contributing to a rise in the sea level, shifts in climatic zones, and stresses on many ecosystems. As past emissions of greenhouse gases have already committed the planet to some climate change, it is imperative that socio-economic and natural systems learn to adapt to the new – and changing – climatic conditions. Stabilization of concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is of utmost importance, but requires a significant effort by all countries. It is for this purpose that the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol exist. The objective of the UNFCCC, as stated in Article 2 of the Convention, is: “The stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. Such a level should be achieved within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner.” (UNFCCC, Article 2). The objective highlights that there is no scientific certainty regarding the concentration at which greenhouse gas concentrations become dangerous. It also acknowledges that climate change is inevitable and actions are required both to prevent greenhouse gas emissions and to adapt to the affects of climate change. The UNFCCC is a Framework Convention. It contrasts to other Convention to the extent that it does not identify clear targets such as the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. The UNFCCC instead defines a policy framework for specific actions to be undertaken later. It is composed of guiding principles, and identifies preliminary steps to be undertaken by signatory countries. It is important to note that the UNFCCC it is not legally binding but is rather based on voluntary commitment. Guiding Principles and Commitments Under the UNFCCC Four key guiding principles are identified in the UNFCCC. The precautionary principle implies that actions can be undertaken to restrict or prohibit certain practices when these are considered to have potential serious or irreversible damage on the environment, even if there is no scientific certainty about their effects. The principle of common but differentiated responsibilities has for objective to insure that the costs required to slow down climate change are shared fairly among countries based on their respective level of responsibility for climate change but also in consideration of a country’s capability and social and economic condition. This principle puts the onus on developed countries, who are responsible for a disproportionate amount of greenhouse gas emissions, to play a leadership role to combat global climate change. The special needs of developing countries is highlighted in the Convention and OECD countries are asked to commit financial and technological resources to developing countries to support climate change activities. Finally, the promotion of sustainable development through the transfers of more efficient technologies and know-how and through popular education about climate change, is identified as a key element of success in any strategy to combat climate change. Among the commitments required from signatory parties are: the development of national programmes to temper climate change, including strategies to adapt to its impacts; the consideration of climate change in various sectors of activity such as agriculture, energy, and natural resources; the initiation of cooperative initiatives to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, particularly in the area of technological expertise; the submission of inventories of greenhouse gas emissions by source and greenhouse gas removals by sinks; and the development of education and public awareness initiatives. Working Structure of the UNFCCC The Conference of the Parties (COP) is made up of all the states that have ratified the Convention. It is the decision-making body whose role is to ensure the implementation of the Convention. The Secretariat, located in Bonn, Germany, has the mandate to plan sessions for COP and other subsidiary bodies, draft official documents, compile and transmit reports, provide assistance to the Parties, coordinate efforts with other Convention secretariats, and provide information to the public on the Convention. There are two main subsidiary bodies to the UNFCCC. The Subsidiary Body on Science and Technical Advice (SBSTA) provides advice and up-to-date scientific and technical information to COP. The Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI) provides assistance to COP on the assessment and implementation of the Convention. The Kyoto Protocol Following the first meeting of the Conference of the Parties in 1995, the Ad Hoc Group on the Berlin Mandate (AGBM) was created. The Berlin Mandate, a main outcome of COP-1, focused on the issue of adequacy of commitments under the UNFCCC. The mandate of the AGBM was to consider the adequacy of commitments and appropriate actions beyond 2000. Such a task included looking at strengthening the commitment of OECD countries (Annex 1 countries) by identifying some more explicit targets. The AGBM completed their task in 1997 at the third COP meeting with the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol. A supportive element to the negotiation of the Kyoto Protocol was the Geneva Ministerial Declaration produced a COP-2 in 1996. This Declaration was an endorsement by the Parties to the Convention of the Second Report of the IPCC. The Report concluded that there was a clear relationship between human activities and observed climate change patterns and that changes in the climate system may already be occurring because of past emissions. A year later at COP 3 held in Kyoto, Japan in December 1997, the Kyoto Protocol is adopted by consensus. At present, 84 countries have signed the Kyoto Protocol and 22 countries have ratified. For its entry into force, 55 countries must ratify and a minimum of 55% of these countries must be Annex 1 countries (mainly OECD countries). Once it comes into force, the Kyoto Protocol will be legally binding - parties will be required by law to fulfill the commitments agreed to in the Protocol. The Commitment under the Protocol is for a collective emission reduction of at least 5% by the period between 2008-2012 for developed countries. However, different reduction targets have been negotiated for different Parties. For example, Switzerland will reduce by 8%, the US and Canada by 7 and 6% respectively, and Norway will increase its emission by 1%. Six greenhouse gases have been particularly identified as the target for reduction. The three most important gases, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) are to be measured against the emission levels of 1990. For the three other gases, referred to as long-lived industrial gases – hydrofluorocarcons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), the baseline can either be 1990 or 1995. Contrary to the non-binding goal of the Convention to return emissions to 1990 levels by 2002, most developed countries have increased greenhouse gases emissions, therefore increasing the real emission reduction targets. These emission reduction targets require significant adjustment of production modes of almost all economic sectors. After three years of negotiations, the Protocol has not come into force and most developed countries, including Canada and the USA, have yet to ratify the Protocol. Significant business sector opposition to the government’s ratification of the Protocol and the fear of economic repercussions are largely responsible for impeding the entry into force of the Protocol. There are three main mechanisms in the Protocol to help meet the collective target of at least 5% overall emission reduction and limit the cost of climate change policies. Each of these continues to require further negotiation and are quite complex. Their purpose is to help reduce the cost of emission reduction while ensuring that the target is met. The challenge is to make sure that such measures do not undermine the objective of the Protocol by creating loopholes that countries will use to circumvent their domestic commitments to emission reduction.
The Buenos Aires Plan of Action At COP 4 held in Buenos Aires, Argentina in November 1998, Parties adopted the Buenos Aires Plan of Action, which reestablished their commitment to strengthen the Convention’s implementation and prepare the entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol. A two-year period was identified to reach the goals of the Plan of Action and COP 6, scheduled for November 2000 in the Hague, the Netherlands, will mark the culmination of this process. Several important meetings and workshops have been held to forward the implementation of the Convention and the entry into force of the Protocol. For a list of these, as well as a short description of their purpose and outcomes, visit the Linkages page on the International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) website. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) The IPCC consists in three working groups and a task force: Working Group I: assesses scientific aspects of the climate system and climate change Working Group II: addresses vulnerabilities and adaptation of socioeconomic and natural systems Working Group III: assesses options for greenhouse gas emissions and mitigation The Task Force on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories oversees National Greenhouse Gas Inventory Programmes. The IPCC continues to provide scientific, technical, and socio-economic advice to the world community and to the Parties to the Convention in particular. First Assessment Report (1990) Second Assessment Report (1995) Third Assessment Report (expected in 2001) Canada signed the UNFCCC on 12 June, 1992 and ratified it on 4 December 1992, a making it the 8th country to ratify the Convention. Canada signed the Kyoto Protocol on 29 April, 1998 but has not ratified it as of August 2000. Respecting the commitments under the Convention, Canada submitted in 1994 and 1997 National Reports on Climate Change. These provided up-to-date information on sources of GHG emissions, impacts and actions undertaken by government and the private sector to remedy these. Beyond its international reporting commitment, the Canadian government has been active since 1990, the year of the First IPCC Report, to address Climate Change. Among some initiatives were the establishment of the Energy Efficiency and Alternative Energy Program in 1990 for which a federal budget of $175 million over six years was committed; the Federal Building Initiative in 1991, and the proclamation of the Energy Efficiency Act in 1993. In 1995, a Voluntary Challenge and Registry program was developed inviting industries to participate in efforts to reduce GHG emissions. Following the entry into force of the Convention was the development of the National Action Program on Climate Change (NAPCC), tabled in 1995. This Action Program outlines Canada’s strategic direction and long-term approach to address climate change. 1996 saw the introduction of the Federal Action Program on Climate Change with a goal to reduce by 20% GHG emissions from 1990 levels within the federal government. A more complete list of Canadian initiatives can be found on the Climate Change Chronology site of the Government of Canada. In 1997, countries met in Kyoto, Japan for COP 3 where Canada played an important role in the negotiation to ensure the adoption of a flexible Protocol. This was translated in different GHG emissions reduction targets for participating countries and the other mechanisms such as the CDC introduced in the previous section . For Canada and other developed countries, ensuring that targets would permit cost-effective actions and sustained competitiveness, trade balance and economic growth was key. In Kyoto, Canada agreed to a 6% reduction in its GHG emissions below its 1990 level between 2008-2012. Following the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol, a framework and process to engage provincial and federal governments and stakeholders to examine the impacts, costs and benefits of climate change was developed in Canada. As a result, in February 1998, a Climate Change Secretariat was set-up with the mandate to coordinate the development of a national implementation strategy, including the management of the national engagement process for the development of the strategy. The main objectives of the secretariat are to:
The national engagement process includes the creation of 16 issues tables composed of experts from government, academia, environmental groups, scientists, and NGOs, mandated to develop Table Option Reports. The issues addressed by the tables include public education and outreach, technology, analysis and modeling, transportation and agriculture. The Joint Ministers of Energy and Environment will review the Options Reports in 2000 which will lead to the National Implementation Strategy. Recent key Canadian publications on climate change are:
Click here for a list of publications In the year 2000, numerous initiatives have been undertaken by the federal government to continue addressing the challenge climate change. Key areas of investment in the next years are technology innovation, and climate and atmospheric research. $100 million is provided for the creation of a Sustainable Development Technology Fund that will support the development of new technologies and their marketing. The Canadian Foundation on Climate Change will also be created and granted $60 million to undertake further research in climate change, extreme weather and air quality. The Foundation will work as an independent body through universities. The Canadian government will also invest another $125 million in two municipal funds to help municipalities provide innovative and cost-effective energy services and will affect such sectors as wastewater and urban transportation. Building on the success of ongoing initiatives, $210 million will be invested, starting in 2001-2002, in the Climate Change Action Fund created in 1998. Additional investments are planned for international initiatives in Budget 2000. Beyond Governments The issue of climate change is one that has not only caused governments of the world to mobilize but also civil society, particularly non-governmental organizations. In Canada, numerous local, provincial, national and international NGOs have taken up climate change as a central theme of their research, education, and lobbying work. NGO activities have enriched the debate, the level of awareness in the Canadian population about climate change, and have provided valuable research data leading to the identification of some concrete actions and solutions to fight climate change in Canada. Their work also proves invaluable in pushing the government to act on its commitments when it is also being pressured by corporation to limit its actions, particularly when these would required significant transformation of the economic and trade sectors. The Impact of Climate Change in Canada Canada will be affected more than most countries because of its northern landmass. Over the past 100 years, average temperatures in Canada have increased by about one full degree. Over the next 100 years, average temperatures in Canada could increase from three to five degrees in the south and up to 10 degrees in the north. While considerable uncertainty exists over the precise local effects of these temperature increases, fishing, farming, forestry, lakes and rivers, coastal communities and the North may be affected. Given the importance of natural resources to our country, and because of the severity of our climate, leadership in this area is not a matter of choice for Canada. Source: Budget 2000 UN Links
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