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Biotechnology
UNA-Canada's "On the Road to Brazil" Series
-Issue Paper No.8-

Biotechnology: An Introduction

Our planet is home to literally millions of life forms, many of which are too small to be seen by the naked eye. Humans have routinely used these microorganisms, or microbes, to improve their quality of life since the dawn of time. A simple meal of bread, cheese, and beer, for example, is only possible because of the activities of microbes which turn milk into cheese, produce gases to make bread rise, and convert the sugar in barley into alcohol.

In recent years, as our knowledge of this microscopic world has increased, biotechnology -- or the practical utilization of microbial, plant and animal cells -- has emerged as a technique capable of conferring tremendous benefits on humanity: increased food production; reduced dependence on artificial fertilizers and pesticides; improved health by creating and mass-producing new drugs, antibiotics, and hormones; pollution control by harnessing microbes which can consume harmful wastes; and increased capacity.

There are four basic types of biotechnology: genetic manipulative, or recombinant DNA technology; cellular manipulative, or the creation of specific substances through the fusion of normal and abnormal cells; fermentative technology, or the large scale growth of living organisms and the removal or extraction of substances as a result of this growth; and enzyme technology, or the production of substances that have the capacity to enhance chemical reactions and form any number of resulting products from various substances.

Each of these techniques offers countless opportunities for the improvement of life on Earth. Genetic engineering is the most spectacular facet of biotechnology, permitting the manipulation of the basic building blocks of life to produce desired characteristics at the cellular level. It is only within the last 20 years that scientists have discovered they could graft totally foreign pieces of genetic information into microbes to create new life forms. In laboratories around the world, genetic engineers have already designed microbes to manufacture dozens of potentially invaluable substances, such as insulin and new drugs to combat viral diseases.

But other biotechnological techniques have been equally significant. Cellular manipulative research, for example, has opened up the possibility of creating new crops which will grow more rapidly and require less fertilizer.

The exciting possibilities inherent in biotechnology arise because of the incredible diversity of microscopic life. Microbes can be found almost everywhere, even in the most inhospitable of environments, such as ice, oil, and boiling water. In addition, some can feed on apparently non-nutritious materials, such as plastic, oil, even solid rock. This ability means microbes could be used to clean up waste oil spills or to eliminate plastic waste, something which in the absence of biotechnology is virtually non-biodegradable. Microorganisms have also been used to leach metals, such as uranium and copper, from low-grade ores.

To achieve the potential offered through biotechnology, therefore, it is essential that the Earth’s biological diversity be preserved. Biological diversity refers to genetic variation, the number of species, and the different ecosystems in which they co-exist. Although numerous conservation efforts have been launched to preserve biological diversity, biological resources are being lost at a greater than natural rate as human populations swell and little is done to change often wasteful or unthinking behaviour patterns (see Issue No. 6 on biological diversity for more information).

Can Biotechnology Be Dangerous?

The promises of biotechnology are accompanied by a range of concerns which cannot be ignored. Although the benefits are obvious, laboratory accidents, deliberate misuse of new techniques, unexpected interactions with the environment, and the creation of products with harmful long-term effects are very real possibilities.

The potential risks, for example, posed by grafted genetic material escaping uncontrolled into wild organisms by gene transfer processes that occur naturally in the environment need evaluation before any project is undertaken. The socioeconomic and environmental risks and benefits must also be evaluated in every instance.

The potential of biotechnology being used in the development of weapons of mass or even minor destruction also deserves serious consideration. The Geneva Protocol of 1925 prohibited the use of bacteriological methods of warfare as well as chemical weapons. By the late 1960’s, however, it was widely recognized that biological weapons had even more devastating potential than chemical weapons. The result was the 1972 Convention of the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons. In addition to the prohibitions recognized in its title, it also called for the elimination of existing weapons.

By 1975, 111 states had ratified the Convention while another 25 had signed, but the problems of verifying a country’s compliance with the terms of the convention persist. A 1986 review conference sought to recognize and allow for these problems which relate largely to confidence-building measures. Further legal steps relating to the Biological Weapons Convention are dependent upon the completion of the negotiations around a chemical weapons convention.

There are many problems that make the successful development of a biological weapon far from simple. However, the fact that research and development is still permitted for defensive purposes, and the fact that verification processes are difficult, continue to make this an area of international concern.

Biotechnology and the Third World

One of the great ironies surrounding biotechnology is that while the enormous richness of biological species and hence the required genetic diversity is largely found in the Third World, the specialized technology, skilled manpower and development capital needed for research are found almost wholly in the private sector of the industrialized world. This could easily lead to exploitation of the natural resources of developing countries in ways which only widen the development gap between North and South.

For years, wild plants and seeds have been collected freely by researchers and crossbred with crops. A Turkish variety of wheat helps give stripe-rust resistance to North Americas wheat crop. An Ethiopian gene helps protect the barley crop from disease. Plant substances have been the ingredients or inspiration for more than one-quarter of modern drugs. The National Cancer Institute in the United States alone collects thousands of plant samples each year from Asia, Africa, and Latin America in its search for new cancer drugs.

The countries from which such plants are obtained have rarely been compensated, since the specimens have been treated as part of the common heritage of mankind. Lately, however, the concept of property rights for plants has been gaining ground. Some nations are beginning to restrict access to wildlife samples or to demand compensation for their genetic resources as they do for mineral resources.

Another major consideration is the impact of biotechnology on local economies. Biotechnology could erode the livelihoods of traditional producers by the development of substitute products and processes from genetic materials taken in some instances, from those very countries.

In Kenya, for example, the government withdrew its support in 1982 for biotechnology programmes creating fuel alcohol because the main raw ingredients consumed were basic food crops. Food imports soared during the period the Kenyan government supported these programmes. On the other hand, although the use of food crops for the production of fuel alcohol may result in food shortages, the possibility of hardier crops grown on previously barren land ultimately would have the opposite effect. The long-term effect of these opposing market forces can only be guessed at; in the short-term, however, biotechnology can have detrimental effects on local and national economies and can present governments with significant dilemmas as they seek to limit the damage to their populations.

As biotechnology research advances, the world economy will be buffeted again and again by conflicting forces. As mortality rates drop due to new medicines, populations will rise, creating greater needs for energy, food, and fresh water.

United Nations Efforts

The United Nations seeks to monitor the work of the many private, public and international organizations which are involved with some aspect of biotechnological development. The UN’s family of agencies provides a variety of services relating or exploring biotechnology’s interconnections with agriculture, health, industry and the environment. Through these agencies, environmental management programmes, agricultural and food production and safety systems, and the work of microbiological research centres around the world are examined and enhanced. The emphasis is on technical assistance, accelerated technological research, special training and dissemination of information.

Building on on-going work in the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, an inter-agency informal working group on safety in biotechnology has been set up under the auspices of the UN Industrial Development Organization, the UN Environment Programme, the World Health Organization and the Food and Agriculture Organization. It is seeking to speed the elaboration of basic safety guidelines and to prepare an international code of conduct. Its work is central to the process of preparing for UNCED itself, which will be seen by looking at the main issues at UNCED.

Issues at UNCED