Canada on the Security Council (1999-2000)

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The Changing Perception of Human Security: Coordinating National and Multilateral Responses
George MacLean, University of Manitoba

Introduction
It has become commonplace to speak of the passing of the Cold War as a cause for fundamental, or even revolutionary shifts in the way we conceptualize and consider international security. This is understandable, in light of the monumental structural changes that accompanied the end of that era. The end of the Cold War, however, has not meant that the international security issues dominant during that period are somehow rendered immaterial: indeed, inter-state warfare, the threat of proliferating weapons of mass destruction, and conventional arms races (to name but a few) remain as central components of the current inventory of security threats worldwide.

Yet increasingly, new areas of security, as well as aspects of enduring problems such as ethnic violence, peacekeeping, environmental degradation, emigration, and intra-state conflict, have come to the fore of a much expanded agenda of international security concerns. Accordingly, there has emerged a call for a re-ordered approach to the study of international security, widening the scope of traditional arenas, and broadening the design of research methods and topics. The results from this new approach include concentration on the role of, and implications for, individuals and communities, as well as national states. The recognition that these "non-state" actors in the international system have unique and consequential security interests has led to the conception of human security, described in greater length below. Importantly, understanding human security, as well as our individual and institutional responses to it, requires a new method of interpreting security. As Mahbub ul Haq, Special Advisor to the United Nations Development Programme Administrator, would have it, "we cannot meet the new threats to human security through the ideas and weapons of yesterday."¹

The purpose of this paper is to introduce and orient the concept of human security, as well as appropriate responses to it. The paper begins with an overview of the concept, then argues for a different set of approaches and skillsets for dealing with it, before offering some suggestions for coordinating activities that may assist in responding to threats to it. Overall, the paper is intended to produce discussion and consideration of this new security concern.

Defining Human Security and the New Agenda of International Concerns
In broad terms, human security shifts our focus from traditional territorial security to that of the person. Human security recognizes that an individual’s personal protection and preservation comes not just from the safeguarding of the state as a political unit, but also from access to individual welfare and quality of life. But human security does not merely "envelope" matters of individual benefit (such as education, health care, protection from crime, and the like); this is because these matters could be thought of as part of the objectives of sovereign states. Rather, human security also denotes protection from the unstructured violence that often accompanies many aspects of non-territorial security, such as violence emanating from environmental scarcity, or mass migration. Therefore, just as traditional notions of territorial security involve the structured violence manifest in state warfare, human security also attends to the issue of unstructured violence.² Human security, in short, involves the security of the individual in their personal surroundings, their community, and in their environment. Table 1 provides an overview of human security concerns.

Table 1. Human Security Issues

l Personal security of the individual from violence or harm

l Access to the basic essentials of life

l Protection of the individual from:

Crime and terrorism
Pandemic diseases
Political corruption
Mass migration

l Provision of human rights

l Freedom from violation based on gender

l Rights of political and cultural communities

l Political, economic, and democratic development

l Preventing the misuse and overuse of natural resources

l Environmental sustainability and efforts to curtail pollution

While this may appear to be a wide-ranging set of security interests (and indeed it is), there is a central theme evident here: at their most severe level, each of these issues involves the threat of unstructured violence, and the adverse effects of one’s environment. But human security is not merely a "redefinition" of security – in fact, human security is very much related to traditional normative ideas about territorial security in that both seek to guarantee or guard against some deprivation felt by either the individual or the community. Furthermore, human security is related to traditional security in that the conventional objectives of states are twofold: 1) preserving a state’s territorial integrity (security goals); and 2) providing benefits and distributing public goods to citizens (welfare goals). Human security, then, concentrates on the security of welfare goal provision. On the other hand, it is distinct from territorial security in that it is not just a "defensive" concept, but is an "integrative" concept,³ designed to incorporate governance and protection of political communities with the broader concerns of individual welfare and invulnerability.

Alongside these distinctions, an important similarity must be identified. Just as traditional security is not just conflict resolution, but also conflict prevention, human security involves the active avoidance of conflict; it represents efforts to curtail or evade conflict. A "secure" environment – territorial or human – is one where conflict is dissuaded, not just resolved.

Ensuring Human Security: The Need for Different Approaches and Skillsets
Human security is a reflection of the growing "mutual vulnerability"⁴ faced by contemporary political communities. This state of mutual vulnerability is the result of spreading interconnectedness among states in the international system. This interconnectedness, or interdependence, is by no means a new concept,⁵ but the issue of vulnerability is of importance here. Traditional political communities are always affected in some manner by the activities of others; however, susceptibility to the activities of others extends not just to territorial states, but also to local communities and individuals. Furthermore, the interconnectedness of individuals and communities has implications for the entire international system, as problems even in the weakest of regions have ramifications for the more powerful ones, resulting in a condition where no region in the international system may "be immune" to the risks to human security in another.⁶

Conceptually, one of the reasons why human security does not make an easy "fit" into our traditional notions of security concerns is that many human security matters are thought of as within the realm of domestic and not international responsibility. However, though we may be able to examine issues from a decidedly domestic or international level, we must bear in mind the intractable link between domestic events and those that affect the international community. This is not to suggest that the state is somehow eliminated from this relationship; rather, responses to human security encompass the interests of the state, multilateral or transnational actors, and the international community as a whole. Given the interconnectedness of states in the international system, events at the domestic level unavoidably "spill over" into the international arena.

Table 2. Dimensions of traditional and Human Security

Dimension	Traditional Security	Human Security
Spatiality	Territorally sovereign	Not necessarily spatially oriented
Target	State	Community and individual
Subject-matter	Diplomatic and military	Socio-political, socio-economic, environmental
Patterns of control	Institutionalized	Non-institutionalized
Decision-Making	Formal (political)	Informal (intuitive)
Potential threat	Structured violence	Unstructured violence
Responses	Diplomatic and military; unilateral	Scientific, technological; multilateral governance

Responding to human security requires unconventional approaches and skillsets. Table 2 distinguishes human security from traditional security, outlining several dimensions that delineate the two: spatial parameters; the target involved; subject-matter; pattern of control; decision-making procedures; potential threats; and responses. Responding to traditional security involving sovereign territorial states with institutionalized politics and regularized forms of decision-making requires diplomatic and military skillsets – the conventional "tools" of statecraft.

Securing the individual in his or her community is a different matter. Conceptually, this is often a non-territorial relationship, involving non-state and non-institutional actors whose decisions are limited, or even mandated, by external forces. Regarding skillsets and approaches, a brief reference to Table 1 gives some indication of the diverse approaches necessary to affect human security. Table 3 outlines some of these skillsets: policing, the provision and allocation of public goods by governments, regulatory mechanisms, constitutional and legal norms, and democratic development. Importantly, these move beyond diplomatic and military competencies, incorporating science, technology, law enforcement, judiciaries, social services, as well as governments.

Table 3. Resonding to Human Security Threats

Human Security Issue	Required Skillsets and Approaches
Personal security of the individual from violence or harm	Local policing
Access to the basic essentials of life Protection of the individual from: Crime and terrorism Pandemic diseases Political corruption Mass migration	Local governance; public goods allocation; health policy; transnational cooperation
Provision of human rights Freedom from violation based on gender Rights of political and cultural communities	Legal, constitutional, and juridicial
Political, economic, and democratic development	Democratic development; aid and trade strategies

Prescribing Responses: Coordinating the Activities of the United Nations
Prescribing a role for the international community in this regard is a complex task; in part this brings to bear the link between domestic and international events and responses. Unlike traditional security, where sovereignty upholds the primary right of states to respond, human security requires a multi-tiered approach, including non-state or sub-state actors, nation states, and – significantly – multilateral or international actors. The key to the successful management of human security concerns will be the coordination of activities at all three levels. Table 4 lists some of the responses required on a multi-tiered basis. None of these responses are independent of the other levels. Successful coordination, however, will be conditioned by efficient multilateral organization.

At the "non-state" level, non-governmental organization (NGO) involvement, the use of independent specialists and observers, and efforts at local community building are essential. These contributing elements are integral for human security at the local level, but are least subject to institutional governance by state or multilateral actors. Moreover, a review of Table 4 reveals the integration of national and international issues and roles for response at these levels.

Table 4. Multi-tiered Roles for Response

Non-state/Sub-State	Nation-state	International/Multilateral (UN)
Non-governmental organization(NGO) assistance and involvement Independent specialists and observers Community building Normative and attitudinal change	Foreign direct investment; capital flows; technology and financing Overseas development assistance; foreign debt management Environment Poverty reduction; incentives for population reduction;control of pandemic disease Economic and political development, pluralism, human rights Demilitarization; arms export controls	Coordinated humanitarian reaction Coordinated economic reaction Coordinated environmental reaction Coordinated security reaction Peacekeeping Transnational refugee/migration Minority group articulation UN Security Council reform

There are a number of issues of concern here: bridging the perceived "gap" between international and domestic affairs; responding to unconventional threats without abrogating the principles of sovereignty; reflecting the interests of several layers of actors; and incorporating unorthodox skillsets in the effort to prevent conflict or unstructured violence. The role of the UN is crucial in this regard in order to integrate human security efforts. This, then, is not "intervention," on the part of the UN; rather, it is the coordination of domestic and international authorities. The role of UN institutions will be transformed, and will require a degree of reform. Table 5 offers some suggestions in this regard, outlining a proposed basic structure for a UN Economic Security Council, suitable for integrating and coordinating international and domestic human security efforts.

Table 5. Divisional Breakdown for a New UN Economic Security Council

Coordination Division	Responsibilities and Activities
Economic	Debt management Poverty elimination Investment Private sector development Capital flows
Development and Aid	Overseas development assistance Aid and trade coordination
Health and Social Services	Pandemic disease Migration and refugees Health care Women and minorities Access to food
Environment	Land degradation Deforestation Desertification Environmental disasters
Political	Human rights Democratic development Pluralism Cultural integrity
Security	Peacekeeping/building Law enforcement Conflict prevention and conflict resolution Demilitarization and arms exports controls

Conclusion
Michael Renner has argued that the "greatest threats to security today come from within nations, not from invading armies."⁷ Indeed, 90% of casualties from conflict in the late twentieth century were civilian, whereas in the early twentieth century, 90% were military casualities.⁸ As the UNDP notes, the majority of these casualities – in many cases the results of unstructured violence – result from decidedly unconventional security threats. The shift to the post-Cold War period has indeed introduced a new and much more broad-based dimension of conflict. Preventing and resolving these conflicts constitutes human security. In the final analysis, promoting human security requires effective coordination at the domestic and international levels, together with a lead role for multilateral institutions such as the United Nations.

† George MacLean is an Assistant Professor at Centre for Defence and Security Studies, Department of Political Studies, at the University of Manitoba in Winnipeg. He teaches international relations, security studies, foreign policy, and international political economy.

1 Address by Mahbub ul Haq, "New Compulsions of Human Security," NGO/DPI Annual Conference, New York, 8 September 1993. [back]

2 I am grateful to Andrew Latham for suggestions on this matter. [back]

3 This adoption has been made by the United Nations Development Programme. Cited in "Global Environmental Change and Human Security?" Changes: An Information Bulletin on Global Environmental Change, Issue 5 (1997) <http://www.cgcp.rsc.ca/english/html_documents/publications/changes/issue5/index1.htm>[back]

4 An expanded discussion on this issues may be found in Ivan Head, On a Hinge of History: The Mutual Vulnerability of South and North, (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991).[back]

5 See, for instance, Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye, Power and Interdependence: World Politics in Transition, (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1977).[back]

6 See Head; also, Jorge Nef, Human Security and Mutual Vulnerability, (Ottawa: IDRC, 1995).[back]

7 Michael Renner, Fighting for Survival: Environmental Decline, Social Conflict and the New Age of Insecurity, (Washington: Worldwatch Institute, 1996).[back]

8 James Gustave Speth, New Dimensions of Human Security: The Human Development Report 1994, United Nations Development Programme, (1 June 1994), 2. [back]